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General

Description

This affix is used to create nouns from divalent stems that represent the Patient role of the verbal action. It can be translated as 'one who is Vb'ed' or perhaps as 'Vb'ee' (compare e.g. English 'to train', 'trainee' = 'one who is trained'). Given the meaning, it only makes sense on divalent stems (and is only used productively on such stems), although there are a few lexicalised examples of it being used even on monovalent stems (where the meaning implies a Patient).

The affix is commonly used with possessive endings to express 'a Patient that was Vb'ed by Possessor', which can correspond to a sub-clause with 'who(m)' in English. For example:

• angut takusara naapipparput, 'we met the man whom I saw', with Absolutive 1.sg/sg ending N{-ga}. Literally 'who is known by me'.

The noun created by this affix can also be incorporated again by another affix. There are in particular two common constructions:

• It can be incorporated with N{-qaq}V to yield a completely indefinite construction, corresponding to 'some/any' in English. See V{-ðaqaq}V for further details on this construction.
• It can be incorporated with N{-u}V, which yields a stative passive verb, corresponding to 'is/was Vb'ed' in English. See V{-ðau}V for further details on this construction.

According to Fortescue et al. (2010), this affix is historically two different morphemes, {ðaʀ} and {kaʀ} with the same meaning, but with different sandhi behaviour, and seemingly with one morpheme being preferred on some stem types, and another on other stem types. The current usage is a blend between the two (suppletion), leading to much irregularity. Thus, this affix has idiosyncratic sandhi rules. Today, the rules are as follows:

• On vowel stems it regularly becomes /caq/.

• on q-stems it removes /q/ and becomes /gaq/ contrary to all rules; this form also shows (regular) gemination -gaq, -kkap, -kkat and so on.

• On the other consonant stems /ð/ regularly becomes /t/, but at the same time it removes the consonant.

• On ut(ə)-stems it attaches to /ə/, becoming /caq/, but /ə/ then disappears, so we get

  /-ut(ə)ðaq/ ⇒ /-utəcaq/ ⇒ /-utcaq/ ⇒ [-uccaq] ⇒ -ussaq

Some further specialities:

• Following the affix V{ŋŋit}V (negation) we get /ŋŋitaq/ ⇒ /ŋŋisaq/ by the t-to-s rule.

• Following the affix V{ðaq}V (habitually) on a vowel stem, where the initial /ð/ becomes /c/, that affix may be duplicated, such that we get

  V{ðaq}V{-ðaq}N ⇒ V{ðaq}V{ðaq}V{-ðaq}N ⇒ +sartagaq.

This is historically a highly irregular affix, so you can find many lexicalised words containing this affix that do not follow these rules, e.g. ornigaq from {uqnək}V; allagaq from {aglak}V; and errortat (pl) from {ərruq}V. It seems like the {-gaq} form was previously preferred on k-stems, rather than on q-stems (as is the case today). On a few old, lexicalised stems, it even appears as just {-aq}, e.g. sanaaq, 'a product; something made', from {sana}V, Agent produces/processes Patient, although this usage is not regular nowadays.

Declension information

Meaning(s)